Disease/Disorder
Definition
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome (PFPS) is a common, chronic musculoskeletal condition, presenting as pain around or behind the patella.1
Etiology
The etiology of PFPS is multi-factorial and commonly related to biomechanical and tissue overload which lead to increased stress in the patellofemoral joint. Predisposing factors may be classified as those related to local joint impairments, altered lower extremity biomechanics and training errors or overuse, including inadequate training load management.2,3 They include knee valgus, altered loading mechanisms of the knee, osteoarthritis of the patellofemoral joint, among others.4,5
Epidemiology including risk factors and primary prevention
Patellofemoral pain has an annual prevalence of approximately 23% of adults and 29% of adolescents in the general population.1 The reported incidence in the clinical setting ranges from 21 to 40%, affecting females twice as often as males.6 It constitutes nearly 25% of all knee injuries in runners. Risk factors can be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic as well as those factors that are modifiable and those that are not. Modifiable intrinsic factors include weak muscles (hip abductors, external rotators, and vastus medialis); inflexibility of the iliotibial band, quadriceps, hamstring, and gastroc-soleus tendons; foot overpronation; and increased joint reactive forces with heel strike. Non-modifiable factors include patella alta, femoral anteversion, pes planus, age, gender and race. Extrinsic factors include training errors or overtraining, such as an overly rapid increase in training progression or intensity, inappropriate running shoes, uphill training, hard playing surfaces, insufficient time for recovery after exercise, kinesiophobia, poor quality of sleep, and increased psychological stress.7 Preventive strategies include identification and correction of modifiable risk factors.2
Patho-anatomy/physiology
The anatomy and biomechanics of the patellofemoral joint play a major role in its function, stability, and pathology. The pathogenesis of PFPS is likely multifactorial. Abnormalities to bony structures, dynamic and static stabilizers affect patellar tracking along the femoral trochlea, and lead to uneven distribution of patellofemoral compressive forces and joint stress, abnormal loading of the patellofemoral joint due to maltracking, or increased patellar intraosseous pressure.8,9
Patellofemoral joint reaction forces increase with high degrees of knee flexion and this may trigger pain receptors in the subchondral bone,8 associated with stimulation of free nerve endings and secretion of inflammatory mediators. Other pain generators include the synovial capsular and retinacular soft tissues, and tendon insertions on the patella.
Disease progression including natural history, disease phases or stages, disease trajectory (clinical features and presentation over time)
In the early stage of PFPS, anterior knee pain occurs with jumping, running, and stair climbing. As the clinical condition progresses, pain occurs with activity, may impair sports performance and improves after a period of inactivity. If not diagnosed and treated appropriately, patellar pain will present with less activity and even at rest and may affect activities of daily living. When exercise resumes following periods of rest, the pain may return if biomechanical, training, or footwear errors are not corrected. Over time, abnormal wear to the patella and associated femoral cartilage leads to chondromalacia and chronic pain. The pain tends to persist in many individuals with as many as 40% of patients persisting with pain 12 months after starting treatment.10
Specific secondary or associated conditions and complications
Pain, arthrogenic muscle inhibition, abnormalities in lower limb biomechanics, reduced sports performance, and ultimately degenerative changes in articular cartilage and subchondral bone will occur leading to patellofemoral osteoarthritis (PFOA). PFOA is highly prevalent affecting both lateral and medial patellar facets.7
Essentials of Assessment
History
Patients often describe an ill-defined ache in the anterior knee with insidious onset, pain may also be sharp. It worsens with activities involving knee flexion, such as squatting, sitting for prolonged periods (theater sign), ascending or descending stairs, or running hills. Patients may describe episodes of give-way, weakness/instability, buckling, patellar instability, clicking and knee swelling or stiffness. They may have a recent increase in physical activity or changes in their training intensity.
Physical examination
Examination includes evaluation of static and dynamic factors that can alter patellofemoral mechanics as well as evaluation for other knee pathology. Assess the kinetic chain including lower extremity alignment and hip range of motion, looking for femoral anteversion or generalized hip dysplasia, increase in the dynamic Q angle, genu valgum or recurvatum, external tibial rotation, and foot over-pronation. Evaluate gait pattern and posture. Inspect the patella for abnormal tilt, rotation, superior-inferior position, and the thigh for muscle atrophy. Assess patellar tracking, evaluating for the J-sign (lateral tracking of the patella as the knee moves from flexion to extension). Assess for joint warmth or effusion and palpate the patella, patellar tendon, and peripatellar soft tissues and perform apprehension testing. Assess muscle strength of the hip, knee, and ankle musculature, and flexibility of the ITB, hamstrings, quadriceps, and gastroc-soleus tendons. Referred pain from the hip should also be evaluated for.8,11 Footwear should be examined for wear patterns.7 Of all maneuvers, pain with squatting is the most sensitive physical exam finding (91% sensitivity, 50% specificity) with patellar tilt test being the most specific finding.7,9
Functional assessment
The sit-to-stand, step-down or single leg squat test, observational analysis of walking and running and of jumping/landing mechanics can be incorporated to evaluate dynamic lower extremity kinematics. Biomechanical assessment includes looking for excessive contralateral pelvic drop, lateral trunk deviation, hip adduction and internal rotation, knee valgus, tibial external rotation, and foot pronation.12
Laboratory studies
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein test (CRP) screen for active systemic inflammatory arthritis or connective tissue disorder and are not recommended routinely.
Imaging
If knee pain continues after 6 to 8 weeks of conservative treatment,13 radiographs of the knee (weight-bearing A-P, lateral with 30°of flexion, tunnel, Merchant views) are useful for patellofemoral instability assessment and to rule out other sources of anterior knee pain, including bipartite patella, degenerative changes, loose bodies, and occult fractures. Abnormal knee changes in PFPS to assess on x-ray include patella alta, lateromedial subluxation, patellar tilt, patellar translation, patellar lateralization, trochlear morphology (e.g., trochlear dysplasia, shallow trochlear groove), tibial tubercle lateralization, and prominent lateral ridge.14 There is a high radiographic prevalence of PFOA across a heterogeneous population.15 If plain films are negative and the diagnosis is not clear, or surgery is being considered, then magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or a computed tomography (CT) scan may be indicated.14 CT scans provide a more detailed analysis of the PFJ morphology, which helps assess patellar and trochlear morphology and tibial tubercle lateralization via the tibial tubercle-trochlear groove distance.14 MRI is more sensitive for evaluating soft tissues abnormalities, including patellofemoral cartilage, patellar and quadriceps tendinopathy or tears, medial patellofemoral ligament integrity, superolateral and pre-patellar fat pad edema (which is indicative of maltracking), prepatellar or deep infrapatellar bursitis, and capsular lesions.14 Musculoskeletal ultrasound can be useful in evaluating joint effusion and soft tissue integrity around the patella, including the thickness of the lateral retinaculum, quadriceps tendon and patellar tendon. A method using real-time MRI allows measurement of patellofemoral joint kinematics during weight-bearing and non–weight- bearing dynamic tasks, however this technology is not commonly available for routine clinical use.14
Supplemental assessment tools
Instrumented biomechanical and in vivo evaluation of specific tasks such as squats, step-down maneuvers and the drop jump, using dynamic electromyography and video analysis, can be used in athletes and active individuals. Patients should have their gait evaluated in order to determine any factors that could lead to PFPS, such as excessive or prolonged pronation, tibial internal rotation, or femoral internal rotation. Runners with PFPS may exhibit greater vertical load rates and stiffness upon foot impact, particularly rearfoot strikers.16
Early predictions of outcomes
Factors that may result in slow response to treatment include the severity of symptoms on initial clinical presentation and persistent quadriceps pain and weakness. In one study, younger age at the time of presentation was predictive of success of exercise interventions.17 In another study, young women exhibiting a dynamic knee valgus angle greater than 21.5 degrees who engaged in 4-weeks of proximal control exercises for the lower extremities experienced significant improvements in pain outcomes.18 Longer duration of pain and symptoms of PFPS is associated with a poor prognosis.19 Older age has been associated with benefit from orthotic use.20 Greater midfoot arch difference from non-weight bearing to weight bearing serves as a potential treatment effect modifier with a successful outcome after management with foot orthosis.19
Environmental
Training surface and downhill training are important factors to consider. These surfaces may increase the stress reaction forces that are applied to the extensor mechanism during running or jumping activities. Downhill running is a major risk factor in the incidence of patellofemoral pain as it increases the patellofemoral joint reaction force due to an elevated knee extensor moment and decreased trunk flexion angle.21 The patient should be assessed to determine if they are wearing the appropriate shoes as well. Minimalist, lightweight footwear can reduce patellofemoral joint forces compared with motion-control and high-cushioning footwear in runners with PFPS and its effect is enhanced with increased cadence.20,22 Flat, flexible footwear has been shown to reduce PFJ loading during running, jumping, and stair descent. Studies have demonstrated improvement in PFP symptoms when combining flat, flexible footwear with gait retraining.23,24,25 Medial support insoles may not alter PFJ loads during walking or running.26 Different foot and body types demand the correct type of running shoe as abnormal forces in the foot and ankle will translate to the knee.
Social role and social support system
Because of the multifactorial nature of PFPS, psycho-social factors may play an important role in the treatment planning and education of the patient, family members, and coaching staff. Objective tools that assess physical domains of PFPS can provide a more accurate psychological assessment of quality of life.27 A linear association between PFPS and pain catastrophization, fear avoidance of pain, anxiety and depression has been reported, especially in younger populations.28 Indeed, younger adults experiencing patellofemoral pain often demonstrate psychological impairments that correlate with their pain intensity and functional limitations. Moreover, psychological impairments, along with local hyperalgesia and symptom amplification, are prevalent in individuals exhibiting symptomatic features of patellofemoral osteoarthritis (PFOA).29 Individuals with PFPS have worse knee and health-associated quality of life than healthy controls with similar or greater impairments than patients with ACL tears. Athletes with PFPS have impaired quality of life, but better compared to non-athletes.27 Understanding the nature of the disease process and treatment interventions may lead to better outcomes and function.
Professional issues
PFPS is a condition best treated via a multidisciplinary team approach. The team includes the primary and consulting physicians, athletic trainer, physical therapist, and other sports health specialists (psychology, exercise physiology). Adherence to treatment by the patient is directly influenced by the proper coordination of treatment care and communication within the treating team. It is important to address the athlete’s return to sport criteria. Athletes should have normal motion, strength and lower extremity biomechanics. They should be free of pain at rest and with activity prior to returning to full exercise and participation.
Rehabilitation Management and Treatments
Available or current treatment guidelines
There are no standard treatment guidelines for PFPS. Rehabilitation should follow a comprehensive, criteria-based, multimodal approach that targets individual risk factors and integrates assessment findings, patient preferences and clinical expertise.18,19 Early therapeutic interventions include relative rest, physical modalities, and/or oral medications. Exercise, particularly combined hip and knee strength training, with open (OKC) and closed kinetic chain (CKC) exercises has been shown to lead to long-term improvement in pain and function. Strength training focused on trunk muscle control and ankle muscles may also be effective in long-term management.20 Activity modification and load management has resulted in successful outcomes in hip and knee pain, function and torque and return to play in a 12-month period in adolescents with PFPS.21
At different disease stages
Acute management includes modified rest, ice, and NSAIDs to control symptoms and allow participation in a treatment program. Foot orthoses, patellar taping, and pulsed electromagnetic field therapy may be effective as an adjunctive therapy for short-term improvement of symptoms, treatment tolerance, and adherence to training regimen.18,19,22 Patellar taping and braces to reduce abnormal patellar tracking can be beneficial if it enables pain-free exercise.20,23 Foot orthoses can be most beneficial in patients with greater changes in midfoot arch from non-weight bearing to weight bearing.13
Exercise therapy should be task-oriented, and target speed, power, and multiplanar neuromuscular control.24 The goal is to improve biomechanical abnormalities, reduce joint overload and achieve kinetic chain control during complex movements.24 Strength training with OKC and CKC exercises is proven to be effective for long-term treatment of PFPS in the sub-acute phase. In the early stages, OKC quadriceps exercises should be performed between 45 and 90 degrees of knee flexion while CKC quadriceps exercises should be performed between 0 and 45 degrees of knee flexion to minimize patellofemoral joint stress.19,20,22,25 Hip strengthening exercises, particularly abductors and extensors, should also be emphasized early on. Combined strengthening of the hip abductors, hip external rotators, VMO, and lumbo-pelvic core muscles improves pelvic, hip, and knee dynamic stabilization during functional activities. Strengthening the quadriceps and hip muscles and stretching the iliotibial band reduces patellar lateralization. Overall, the goal is to gradually progress to functional stages of rehabilitation as tolerated.
Neuromuscular electrical stimulation can be helpful for arthrogenic muscle inhibition. Joint and soft tissue mobilization across the kinetic chain and stretching of tight retinacular structures may improve patellar mobility.19,20,22,26 However, they provide uncertain benefits as an adjunctive therapy for patellofemoral pain.19,26,27 ITB, hamstring, and quadriceps stretching improves patellar tracking. Foot pronation correction with Achilles tendon stretching and ankle strengthening is also beneficial.28,29
In later stages of the syndrome, gait and running retraining is essential for a complete rehabilitation and prevention of subsequent symptomatic episodes. Barefoot or forefoot running may be beneficial in decreasing anterior knee stress. Areas of focus include keeping the pelvis level, knees facing forward, softer landing technique, non-rear foot strike pattern, and increasing the step rate.19,20 In runners, gait retraining focuses on reducing hip adduction, increasing forward lean, transitioning to a forefoot strike pattern, and increasing cadence.30 Furthermore, training errors should be identified, such as excessive training load, increasing intensity too fast, inadequate time to recover, and excessive hill work.
Surgical intervention should be reserved after failed rehabilitation trials and evidence of lateral patellar compression or patellar instability. Lateral retinacular release or lengthening should be considered in PFPS patients with excessive lateral patellar tilt without instability. Joint realignment procedures such as Fulkerson osteotomy should be considered in patients with PFPS and patellar instability.20
Coordination of care
Patient coordination of care will depend on response to initial treatment. Early intervention may lead to return to activity, however patients that do not respond to treatment may require further evaluation with advanced imaging, interventional procedures, and in some instances, surgical evaluation. In patients with kinesiophobia and fear of reinjury, psychological evaluation may be warranted.
Patient and family education
Education about the condition, diagnostic approach, and treatment plan is essential in all medical issues. Advice about load management, self-management of pain and the nature and possible causes of PFPS should be consistently used in this population. Health professional-derived education should be combined with exercise therapy to enhance patient response.31 This is especially true in the young athletic population since the parents play a leading role in the health-related decision-making process. An important consideration in the long-term management of PFPS is to strongly encourage the patient to maintain their home exercise program even after symptoms have resolved. If the PFPS was related to strength or flexibility deficit, those issues will likely return if the patient does not continue their home program.
Emerging/unique interventions
N/A
Translation into practice: practice “pearls”/performance improvement in practice (PIPs)/changes in clinical practice behaviors and skills
PFPS is a multifactorial problem; therefore, an increased understanding of the pathoanatomy and etiology of the condition will improve treatment outcomes. Implementing exercise protocols that establish triplanar neuromuscular control in the lower kinetic chain and proximal musculature will help limit contralateral pelvic drop, femoral adduction and internal rotation, and reduce patellofemoral joint stress.24 Clinicians should consider foot orthoses for older patients and those with greater forefoot valgus, exercise for younger patients, and patellar taping for pain relief.12
Cutting Edge/Emerging and Unique Concepts and Practice
The use of dynamic assessment of lower extremity alignment and biomechanics aids the clinician in further defining the etiology of PFPS and planning treatment. Dynamic MRI, instrumented biomechanical testing and gait analysis, including evaluation of running technique, should be considered in the management of athletes or patients not responding to treatment.
Use of ‘minimalist’ footwear has been well studied in reducing patellofemoral joint stresses in healthy subjects. The literature remains limited in PFPS patients, but emerging evidence also supports use of ‘minimalist’ footwear as more beneficial in reducing patellofemoral joint stresses in the symptomatic individual.
Emerging therapeutic interventions for musculoskeletal injuries include the use of prolotherapy, platelet rich plasma (PRP), and mesenchymal stem cell therapy. Botulinum toxin use has been evaluated in small studies in PFPS patients with short-term improvement in pain and functional activities requiring knee flexion.32 PRP and autologous stem cell therapies are being used in the knee for cartilage lesions and PFOA with reported functional improvements.33 As for steroid injections, there are no clear, well-designed studies showing benefits in PFPS.32 Otherwise, there are currently no published studies about these therapies for PFPS.
Gaps in the Evidence-Based Knowledge
There is no common agreement on the definition of PFPS, objective diagnostic criteria, specific treatment protocols, or objective return to play criteria that addresses all patients with PFPS. Specific objective maneuvers, such as single-leg squat versus double-leg squat or step down, should be assessed in future studies. Return to play criteria in patellar disorders are mostly focused on post-surgical cases of patellar dislocations or instability. Determining optimal exercise prescription for PFPS, including frequency, intensity, load and contraction type will help determine the most suitable dose-response relationship between exercise frequency and recovery.18 Most exercise regimens focus on limited-angled OKC exercises. Thus, implementing triplanar CKC protocols can help compare better the effects on pain and function in PFPS patients.25 General uncertainty remains with the long-term benefits of combined therapy with adjunctive interventions such as patellar taping, bracing, manual therapy, acupuncture and patellar immobilization.19 Future studies should also focus on the impact of different training surfaces and evidence-based recommendations for the use of pharmacological interventions, injectables,19 footwear, alternative modalities such as shockwave therapy, and lifestyle and ergonomic changes as treatment for the condition.
References
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Original Version of the Topic
William F. Micheo, MD, Gerardo Miranda, MD, Juan Carlos Perez, MD. Patellofemoral syndrome. 8/17/2016
Previous Revision(s) of the Topic
William F. Micheo, MD, Jose L. Rios Russo, MD, ATC, Richard Fontanez, MD, Gerardo Miranda-Comas, MD. Patellofemoral Syndrome. 12/15/2020
Author Disclosure
William F. Micheo, MD
Nothing to Disclose
Claudia Jimenez, MD
Nothing to Disclose
Martin Roldan, MD
Nothing to Disclose
Felix Perez, MD
Nothing to Disclose
Gerardo Miranda, MD
Nothing to Disclose