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Disease/Disorder

Definition

Two types of cervical spinal stenosis have been discussed in the medical literature: an acquired (i.e., degenerative) type seen in middle-aged and older patients and a congenital type seen in younger, athletic patients. The normal sagittal diameter in the mid cervical spinal canal is between 17 and 18 mm. Absolute stenosis is defined as <10 mm whereas relative stenosis is <13 mm.1

Etiology

Acquired cervical stenosis results from age-related degenerative disk and facet disease with associated uncinate process hypertrophy, ligamentum flavum thickening, and buckling of the posterior longitudinal ligament. Congenital spinal stenosis is associated with short pedicles and bony anomalies of the lateral masses and laminae.2

Epidemiology including risk factors and primary prevention

Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) is the most common cause of spinal cord injury in the developed world; however, its epidemiology remains poorly characterized3-6. The incidence and prevalence of cervical stenosis in one North American study were estimated at a minimum of 41 and 605 per million, respectively6. Risk factors for developing cervical stenosis include advancing age, male sex, genetics, obesity, participation in American football, soccer, rugby and horseback riding, as well as dystonic cerebral palsy, Klippel Feil, and Down Syndromes.5,6

Patho-anatomy/physiology

Neuronal damage in cervical stenosis is mediated by both mechanical and ischemic insults to the spinal cord. Flexion of the cervical spine may compress the spinal cord against anterior osteophytes and intervertebral discs while hyperextension may lead to cord impingement between the posterior margins of the vertebral bodies anteriorly and hypertrophied ligamentum flavum posteriorly6. Dynamic shortening of the posterior cord (i.e., dorsal columns) in extension may account for early difficulties with gait, balance, and proprioception. Chronic CSM causes both gray and white matter demyelination creating a preponderance of upper extremity (i.e., hand) symptoms. This results from the somatotopic organization of the cervical spinal cord which places the cell bodies of the ventral horn motor neurons more laterally and the lateral cortical spinal tracts more medially making them vulnerable to mechanical compression. Compressed arterioles from the anterior spinal artery contribute to cord ischemia producing secondary free radical-mediated cell injury and apoptosis.

Traumatic injuries to the intervertebral disks in younger patients can accelerate the degenerative process. Disk herniations, in particular, may contribute to early spondylosis and kyphotic angulation of the cervical spine as axial loads are shifted to the posterior elements.

Disease progression including natural history, disease phases or stages, disease trajectory (clinical features and presentation over time)

The progression from cervical spondylosis to stenosis and ultimately CSM is still variable and difficult to predict. Many patients experience a relatively benign course of disease with episodic flare-ups of axial neck pain and/or cervical radiculopathy. A prospective, long-term, cohort study of 199 patients presenting with neck pain or cervical radiculopathy and MRI evidence of cord compression without clinical myelopathy estimated that symptomatic spinal cord compression occurred in 25% within a 4 year period at a rate of 6.25% per year.7 Those patients presenting with neurologic deficits that did not spontaneously improve experienced further neurologic decline over time resulting in permanent gait and balance impairment, loss of fine motor skills, and bowel or bladder dysfunction.8

Specific secondary or associated conditions and complications

Axial neck pain is the most common symptom associated with spinal stenosis seen in clinical practice.9 Approximately one third of patients with axial neck pain present with headache and more than two thirds present with shoulder pain.10 Cervical radiculopathy most commonly affects the C6 and C7 nerve roots in the nonathletic population whereas stingers and burners affecting the C5 and C6 roots are seen in collision sport athletes (i.e., American football and rugby players). Spasticity, bowel/bladder dysfunction, deep venous thrombosis, and decubitus ulcers are seen more frequently in immobilized patients with advanced CSM or those in postoperative recovery and inpatient rehabilitation.

Essentials of Assessment

History

In addition to asking questions regarding pain and numbness, the physician should query patients on subtle changes in gait, balance, and loss of fine motor skills which may suggest myelopathy. Bowel and bladder dysfunction are typically late manifestations. Physicians caring for collision sport athletes need to inquire about cervical spine range of motion and tackling technique as early loss of cervical extension and shoulder depression during tackling are associated with an increased risk for cervical neuropraxia and/or nerve root and plexus injury.11,12

Physical examination

Cervical spine range of motion, muscle stretch reflexes and strength should be routinely tested in all patients suspected of having cervical stenosis. Spurling’s maneuver may reproduce radicular pain and/or paresthesia which may be relieved by having the patient elevate the affected arm overhead (i.e., Bakody’s sign). Hoffman’s sign, if present, has been shown to positively correlate with CSM.13 A Babinski sign, ankle clonus, and Lhermitte’s phenomenon should be documented, if present. Sensory ataxia secondary to posterior column dysfunction is assessed by performing a Romberg test.

Functional assessment

A wide-based gait may be observed. The development of a myelopathic hand characterized by loss of dexterity, diffuse numbness, intrinsic muscle wasting, ulnar and flexor drift (i.e., a positive finger escape sign), and an inability to grasp and release objects may impair activities of daily living.14,15

Laboratory studies

In the exceedingly unlikely case of an infectious epidural mass in the cervical spine, laboratory tests such as C-reactive protein, sedimentation rate, and white blood cell count may have some clinical utility.

Imaging

Cervical spine radiographs are useful screening tools in patients with suspected cervical stenosis.16 Historically, the Torg-Pavlov ratio (i.e., sagittal diameter of the cervical canal: width of a mid-cervical vertebral body) has been used to quantify the degree of stenosis. A value < 0.82 tend to reflect congenital stenosis; however, this ratio has been reported to have high false-positive rates and to correlate poorly with the true diameter of the cervical canal, especially in collision sport athletes who have larger vertebral bodies.17–19 A computed tomography myelogram may be indicated in those patients with a contraindication to MRI to view spinal cord contour and compressive bony structures.

T2-weighted MR imaging (T2WI) is being investigated as a new biomarker for the detection of white matter injury in CSM.20 T2WI provides strong diagnostic accuracy in identifying subclinical white matter degeneration but demonstrates variability between patients requiring normalization before being adopted for routine clinical use.21

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is an advanced MRI technique that holds potential in identifying early signs of cervical spinal cord pathology that may otherwise go undetected using conventional magnetic resonance techniques.22 DTI can help identify white matter tract disruption in the cervical spinal cord, as well as the orientation of accompanying glial scar. A recent prospective observational study examining the reproducibility and functional correlation of DTI showed its promise in becoming a useful tool for monitoring those patients with cervical stenosis and/or CSM who choose to pursue non-operative management strategies and those who may benefit from surgical intervention.23

Supplemental assessment tools

Electrodiagnostic testing may be helpful in ruling out other disease states such as carpal tunnel syndrome, peripheral polyneuropathy, or motor neuron disease (i.e., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis).

Early predictions of outcomes

The modified Japanese Orthopaedic Association (mJOA) scale is a self-report tool used to assess neurological function in patients with cervical myelopathy and includes questions on upper and lower extremity motor function, upper extremity sensory function, and sphincter function.24 Patients are then stratified into mild, moderate, and severe disease based on their mJOA score with higher scores indicating greater neurological function. As the disease progresses, patients’ mJOA scores decline denoting neurological deterioration.25

In those patients with SCI, functional recovery in the inpatient rehabilitation setting is documented utilizing serial Functional Independence Measure scores or the Spinal Cord Independence Measure, a 19-item questionnaire assessing self-care, respiration, and sphincter management and mobility.26

In collision sport athletes, cervical neuropraxia resulting in a transient loss of motor and/or sensory function may last up to 36 hours. Players with underlying stenosis have an increased risk for recurrent episodes of cervical neuropraxia which may or may not result in irreversible spinal cord injury (SCI).27 In adults with asymptomatic stenosis, the presence of electromyographic abnormalities or clinical radiculopathy is associated with the development of CSM.28

Environmental

For young athletes with spinal stenosis participating in American football, proper tackling technique to help decrease the risk of cervical spine injury has previously been mentioned. The question of whether a young adult with cervical stenosis should play contact sports, such as football, is controversial knowing that such activity increases the risk of severe neurologic injury. In adults with advanced CSM, pain and/or neurologic dysfunction can render these individuals unemployable.

Professional issues

An ergonomic evaluation of a patient’s workstation can be requested by the physician to promote normal postural alignment when seated and decrease repetitive neck extension which may exacerbate symptoms.

Rehabilitation Management and Treatments

Available or current treatment guidelines

Treatment guidelines for the nonathletic population with cervical stenosis are largely based on systematic reviews of patients with nonspecific axial neck pain. No single non-operative intervention has proven superior to another; however, supervised exercise is likely to be more beneficial than treatments which do not employ such an approach.29 In a retrospective cohort analysis of 90,000 adult patients with cervical stenosis, 92.6% were successfully treated non-operatively while 7.4% failed non-operative management and opted for anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) surgery.30 Failure rates of non-operative therapies were higher in smokers (11%), those having cervical epidural steroid injections (CESI) (11%) and males (8%).29 Additionally, a greater percentage of patients characterized as non-operative failures utilized opioid analgesics, muscle relaxants, and CESI, as well as costing double the amount of those patients characterized as non-operative successes.30

There remains no consensus regarding return-to-play (RTP) guidelines for collision sport athletes who sustain a single episode of transient cervical neuropraxia. It is generally agreed that those athletes without radiologic evidence of stenosis may RTP.27

At different disease stages

Early cervical stenosis with mild-to-moderate cord compression without edema is usually treated non-operatively. Physical therapy along with serial neurologic examinations every 6 months ensures early myelopathic symptoms are not missed.

Neurosurgical consultation is sought when cord compression is severe or edema is seen on MRI. Even after surgery, many patients continue to complain of unsteady gait and poor balance with residual neck and/or arm pain with paresthesia, especially if a focus of abnormal signal (i.e., gliosis) was appreciated in the spinal cord preoperatively.

In later stages, patients with CSM who suffer an acute hyperextension injury to their cervical spine may develop a central cord syndrome. In such cases, inpatient rehabilitation is paramount to help them restore lost function. Neurologic injury, however, may not be reversible.

Coordination of care

Physiatrists are well trained to coordinate care for both the non-athletic and athletic patient populations with cervical stenosis. Older patients with advanced disease may require physical, occupational, and psychological therapies depending on their impairments, as well as social work services to assist with community reintegration.

Early neurosurgical consultation for athletes sustaining a single episode of cervical neuropraxia may be prudent, especially in those players found to have underlying stenosis who wish to return to full contact play (which will be subsequently discussed).

Patient & family education

A multidisciplinary team approach to counseling both older adults and young athletes with cervical stenosis should be employed. For the athlete who wishes to return to contact sports after sustaining a cervical spine injury, meeting with coaching staff, athletic trainers, and family to educate them on the risks of SCI is now standard of care. Educating family members and allied health personnel (i.e., home health aides, visiting nurses) on fall risks in older adults with CSM at the time of physiatric consultation is essential.

Emerging/unique interventions

Surgical decompression is indicated in those patients with advanced cervical stenosis or those with more moderate disease who fail conservative management. Historically, both anterior approaches (i.e., ACDF), posterior approaches (i.e., laminectomy or laminoplasty) with or with fusion, or a combination of the two have been used. A body of evidence has been generated over the past two decades comparing anterior to posterior approaches without identification of a superior standard of care6. In the early 2020’s, interest in minimally invasive spinal surgeries via endoscopic approaches were reported in select patients with cervical stenosis. Studies have shown endoscopic techniques to be as effective as traditional decompressions.31-33 Additionally, they were associated with shorter length of hospital stay, less intraoperative blood loss, and quicker return to work.31-33 These new techniques, however, have steep learning curves which may deter some surgeons from implementing them into practice.34 Comparative studies are still needed to assess for long-term efficacy and potential adverse effects.

Translation into practice: practice “pearls”/performance improvement in practice (PIPs)/changes in clinical practice behaviors and skills

Older patients presenting with neck pain, loss of cervical range of motion, and subtle changes in gait, balance, and fine motor skills should raise suspicion for cervical stenosis and be screened appropriately.

Participation in collision sports has been implicated in the development of premature cervical spondylosis, which may increase the severity, but not necessarily the frequency, of SCI. Any player sustaining an episode of transient cervical neuropraxia should be screened with an MRI scan to rule out underlying cervical stenosis. RTP decision making should then be made on an individual basis with regard to the sport played.

Cutting Edge/Emerging and Unique Concepts and Practice

In addition to the emerging research on T2WI and TDI, the discovery of serum biomarkers in patients with ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) has garnered attention. OPLL-disease specific microRNAs were reported in a study in 2019 possibly aiding in the early detection of OPLL for timely surgical intervention to halt the progression to CSM.35

The study of biomechanics in collision sports, especially as it pertains to athletes with cervical stenosis, overlaps with the work done in concussion. In vivo biomechanical data has been collected in American football players using accelerometer arrays mounted on players’ helmets to measure the location and magnitude of forces necessary to produce cervical spine and head injuries.36 This data continues to be used to improve the safety profile of protective head gear. Newer in vivo studies of American football players using instrumented helmets and video analysis has provided data that may potentially impact coaching and rule changes, as greater head impact magnitudes have been associated with longer closing distances, especially when players start in a 3-point stance.37

Gaps in the Evidence-Based Knowledge

There is still no consensus on the optimal timing of surgical intervention in older adults with asymptomatic cervical stenosis. Some surgeons advocate for earlier spinal decompression with or without fusion to prevent a catastrophic central cord syndrome, whereas other surgeons prefer to wait until the patient is clinically myelopathic.

RTP guidelines for athletes with underlying cervical stenosis remains controversial. Some experts believe that functional spinal stenosis (i.e., a lack of cerebrospinal fluid around the spinal cord on MRI) represents an absolute contraindication to return to contact or collision sports; however, this criterion has yet to be fully evaluated in the literature.27 Others advocate for more liberal allowance to play with previously asymptomatic cervical stenosis.27

References

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  15. Ono K, Ebara S, Fuji T, Yonenobu K, Fujiwara K, Yamashita K. Myelopathy hand. New clinical signs of cervical cord damage. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery – Series B. 1987;69(2):215-219. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.69b2.3818752
  16. Côté P, Cassidy JD, Yong-Hing K, Sibley J, Loewy J. Apophysial joint degeneration, disc degeneration, and sagittal curve of the cervical spine: Can they be measured reliably on radiographs? Spine. 1997;22(8):859-864. doi:10.1097/00007632-199704150-00007
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  31. Yuan H, Zhang X, Zhang LM, Yan YQ, Liu YK, Lewandrowski KU. Comparative study of curative effect of spinal endoscopic surgery and anterior cervical decompression for cervical spondylotic myelopathy. Journal of Spine Surgery. 2020;6(Suppl 1):S186-S196. doi:10.21037/jss.2019.11.15
  32. Ji-jun H, Hui-hui S, Zeng-wu S, Liang Z, Qing L, Heng-zhu Z. Posterior full-endoscopic cervical discectomy in cervical radiculopathy: A prospective cohort study. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery. 2020;195. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.105948
  33. Ahn Y, Keum HJ, Shin SH. Percutaneous Endoscopic Cervical Discectomy versus Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion: A Comparative Cohort Study with a Five-Year Follow-Up. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020;9(2):371. doi:10.3390/jcm9020371
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  36. Broglio SP, Sosnoff JJ, Shin SH, He X, Alcaraz C, Zimmerman J. Head impacts during high school football: A biomechanical assessment. Journal of Athletic Training. 2009;44(4):342-349. doi:10.4085/1062-6050-44.4.342
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Original Version of the Topic

Todd R. Lefkowitz, DO, Martin Zonenshayn, MD. Cervical stenosis. 7/11/2013.

Previous Revision(s) of the Topic

Todd R. Lefkowitz, DO, Ilana Etelzon, MD. Cervical stenosis. 8/11/2017.

Todd R. Lefkowitz, DO, Zhi Cheng Chen, MD. Cervical Stenosis. 7/27/2021

Author Disclosure

Todd R. Lefkowitz, DO
Nothing to Disclose