Fall Prevention in the Elderly

Disease/Disorder

Definition

The World Health Organization defines a fall as “an event which results in a person coming to rest inadvertently on the ground or floor or other lower level.¹ There is no universal consensus among clinicians, researchers or persons who fall, on the definition of a fall.  This inconsistency can bring into question the reliability of research findings, the ability to identify falls and risk factors, and optimally target interventions to prevent falling. In communication between health care providers and seniors, a consistent and specific definition of a fall increases the possibility for early detection of seniors in greater need of care and services.

Etiology

The etiologies of an individual fall are not always obvious to the person falling or to others and most falls are unobserved and under-recognized. Falls in older persons are usually multifactorial, resulting from the accumulation of multiple impairments, rather than any single deficit.² Therefore, when investigating the etiology of falls, it may be better to identify the possible factors that an individual may have and to determine what factors could have actively contributed to the fall.

The most important categories of contributing factors include^2,4,5

• Intrinsic: Examples – age >80 years, prior fall in the past year, lower extremity muscle weakness, gait/balance deficits, cognitive impairment, depression, visual or hearing impairment, poor health status – symptoms such as syncope, dizziness as well as specific diagnoses including Parkinson’s, stroke, and/or peripheral neuropathy.
• Extrinsic: Polypharmacy (>4 medications), environmental hazards (e.g., slippery surfaces, obstacles, stairs, poor lighting, unstable furniture, clutter, loose throw rugs, pets), ill-fitting clothing, and inappropriate footwear.
• Situational: inattention, divided attention, rushing, impulsivity, poor safety awareness, extreme or unusual activity, unfamiliar setting, and risk-taking behavior.

Epidemiology including risk factors and primary prevention

As the population ages and number of older adults grow, the number of elderly patients experiencing traumatic injuries increases.⁶ Unintentional injuries are the 8^th leading cause of death in older adults; Falls are responsible for approximately half of the mortalities from unintentional injuries.⁷ 75% of fall related deaths affect the elderly.² Mortality from falls in older adults has increased significantly from 1999 to 2020 by an average of 4.1% annually.⁷ Additionally, older adults are hospitalized for fall-related injuries five times more than they are for injuries from other causes. Risk of fracture is 5% and risk of other injuries 10-20% though potentially higher in the presence of comorbidities.

Approximately 1 in 4 adults ages 65 years and older will report falling each year, amassing over 14 million total cases.⁸ Risk of falling in a nursing home is nearly double that of older persons living in the community, and this population has the highest fall-related injury percentage.⁵ However, the true incidence of falls in the elderly is likely underestimated due to limited reporting.

Approximately 25% of falls in older adults result in moderate to severe injuries (bone fracture, head injury).⁹ Each year, 3 million older adults are treated in emergency departments for fall injuries and over 1 million older adults are hospitalized because of a fall injury. More than 300,000 older people are hospitalized annually for hip fractures each year and >95% of these hip fractures are caused by falling. Falls are the most common cause of traumatic brain injuries among older adults.⁸

Falls among adults age 65 and older are very costly. In 2020, the annual U.S. medical costs related to non-fatal fall injuries was estimated at $80 billion, increasing from $50 million in 2015.¹⁰ As the number of older Americans increase, the number of fall injuries and the cost to treat these injuries is expected to soar.

Table 1: Risk Factors for Falls⁹

Gait and balance disorders affect 20-50% of individuals >65 yrs.⁴

Older adults who fall have a two- to six-fold increased risk of falling again. Also, risk of falling increases with age non-linearly as health deteriorates; thus, an 80-year-old may have 8 times the risk of a 65-year-old.²

Fear of falling can cause significant social isolation, institutionalization, and depression. Low self-efficacy/self-esteem is increased among fallers. Falls result in an increased incidence of disability; the presence of a disability increases fall risk.¹¹

Patho-anatomy/physiology

Falls occur as a result of a complex interaction amongst intrinsic, extrinsic, and situational factors. As the number of risk factors increase, the likelihood of falls is also increased.

Medical comorbidities increase the risk of falls. Weak knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors, decreased ankle flexibility, impaired proprioception, visual impairment (e.g., decreased visual acuity and altered depth perception), and weight loss/low body mass index (BMI) are all associated with falls.⁹ Postural hypotension leads to loss of balance, and is usually caused by dehydration, concomitant medication use, or autonomic neuropathy. Common cardiovascular disorders associated with falls include carotid sinus hypersensitivity, vasovagal syndrome, bradyarrhythmia, and tachyarrhythmia.¹² Previous studies have indicated that vitamin D deficiency can impair muscle strength and neuromuscular function.¹³

Disease progression including natural history, disease phases or stages, disease trajectory (clinical features and presentation over time)

• New onset/acute: May be related to an isolated non-recurring event or may occur in relatively short-lived clusters, perhaps from an acute illness or exposure to a new drug or environmental hazard.²⁴
• Subacute: Falls may increase in frequency over time, possibly due to the progression of a disease or disability.²⁴
• Chronic/stable: People with chronic, recurrent falls have the highest rate of injurious falls and fractures and seem to occur in people with multiple co-morbidities and depressive symptoms.²⁴ Older persons should be screened at least annually regarding falls, and a multifactorial intervention initiated as appropriate.⁹

Specific secondary or associated conditions and complications

Complications from falls include lacerations, fractures, spinal cord/head injuries, hypothermia, pneumonia, pressure ulcers, rhabdomyolysis, venous thromboembolism, and dehydration. Falls can also lead to hospitalization, greater dependence, loss of autonomy, and depression as well as nursing home residency. Persons hospitalized for falls are more likely discharged to nursing homes and to need more in-home services; they are less likely to regain pre-injury mobility status. Fear of falling alone can result in functional decline.²

Essentials of Assessment

History

All older persons should be asked at least annually if they have fallen.^9,13 A positive response to falls screening questions (>2 falls in past 12 months, medical evaluation for an acute fall, difficulty with walking or balance) should prompt a multifactorial falls risk assessment.^4,9

Focused history including when and how the fall occurred, location of the fall, if patient has fallen multiple times, is there a pattern, and any fall associated symptoms (syncope, dizziness, vertigo, generalized or lower limb weakness, pain, visual problems etc.)⁴ Conduct a medication review including over-the-counter and herbal medications. Social history should include alcohol use, activity history, and use of assistive device.^2,4

Physical examination

The physical examination should focus on the following areas:

• Vital signs: Pulse rate/rhythm, blood pressure with orthostatic assessment
• Vision: Acuity using Snellen chart.²
• Neurologic^2,13
  • Mental status (e.g., Short Portable Mental Status, Mini Mental Status Examination), cranial nerve function
  • Motor (especially lower extremities)
  • Sensation (proprioception/vibration)
  • Reflexes (e.g., hyperreflexia)
  • Cerebellar function
  • Balance
  • Gait/Station observational analysis
  • Romberg test
• Musculoskeletal: Lower and upper extremity joint range of motion, feet, and footwear evaluation^2,13

Functional assessment

Functional evaluation: Many functional performance-based tests are available. However, there is no conclusive evidence supporting one test over another.^4,

Timed Up & Go (TUG)¹⁵

• Patient attempts to rise from chair, walk 3 meters, and then return.
• The Timed Up & Go version times this same task performance
  • <10 sec – independent
  • <20 secs – independent with transfers, stairs, and outdoors
  • 20-29 sec – variable balance, gait speed, functional capacity
  • ≥30 secs – needs help with chair, toilet transfer & stairs,
• Pros: simple, quick, and inexpensive to perform. Includes functional task data
• Cons: Limited change sensitivity data^2,4

Tinetti Balance & Gait Index¹⁷

• Functional performance test with a 9-item balance scale (max. score = 16); and a 7-item gait scale (max. score = 12).
  • Balance tasks include sitting & standing balance with eyes both open and closed, sitting & arising from chair, and performing a 360-degree turn.
  • Gait test assesses initiation, step symmetry, length and height, foot clearance, trunk sway, path and stance.
• Pros: Simple and widely used. Includes functional tasks.
• Cons: Subjective scoring.²

Berg Balance Scale (BBS)¹⁷

• 14 items assessing ability to stand and maintain standing despite internally produced perturbations. Items are scored on 0 (unable) to 4 (safely done) scale (max. score = 56)
  • In elderly, score >45 indicates a low fall risk.
  • Change of 8 points indicates a genuine function change for ADL dependent older people.
• Good inter- and intra-rater reliability
• Pros: Easy, quick (10-15 min.) to administer. Familiar to and typically performed by most physical therapists.
• Cons: Low validity and sensitivity for non-ambulatory stroke patients.²

Direct observation of the patient’s independence with basic Activities of Daily Living (ADL), including use of gait aids/assistive equipment.¹³ Assess perceived functional ability and fear of falling.¹³ If warranted, assess for depression (Geriatric Depression Scale).

Laboratory studies

• Complete Blood Count (CBC) to evaluate anemia, leukocytosis, platelet abnormalities.
• Basic Metabolic Panel to evaluate electrolytes and renal function.
• Albumin for nutritional status.
• Glucose and HgbA1c for evaluation of diabetes.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Vitamin B12 and D levels for thyroid and vitamin status.
• Urinalysis, if suspicion of urinary tract infection.
• Check for toxicity of medications, such as digoxin or anticonvulsants.

Imaging

A DEXA scan may be performed to evaluate bone mineral density, if warranted.

Other imaging may be performed as necessary to evaluate abnormalities/deficits noted by history, physical examination, and/or laboratory testing.

Supplemental assessment tools

One-Leg Stance (OLS) Test: Ask patient to stand unassisted on one limb of their choice; record stance time from when foot leaves floor until it touches again

• Stance >30 sec indicates very low fall risk; stance <5 sec is good predictor of injurious fall in elderly persons.
• Good inter-rater reliability but limited evidence for reliable change over time.
• Pros: very simple and quick
• Cons: accurate but nonspecific as prolonged OLS not a functional activity¹⁷

Sharpened (modified) Romberg Test: Measures static standing balance by assessing the length of time the patient can stand heel-to-toe with arms across chest and eyes closed for 60 seconds over a series of 4 trials.

• Perfect score is 240 seconds.
• Pros: easy, inexpensive to administer; timing adds objectivity
• Cons: non-specific for a particular problem, pathway or system; no functional information²

Functional Reach (FR): Ask patient to stand parallel to a wall-mounted yardstick with arms held at 90 degrees of flexion. The patient is instructed to reach forward maximally without taking a step. The distance change from start position is the patient’s functional reach.

• Reach ≤ 6 inches predicts a fall.
• Pros: Simple, inexpensive to administer. Established reliability and validity data. Sensitive to change over time.
• Cons: Yields limited functional information.²

Morse Falls Risk Assessment (acute care or acute rehabilitation setting): predicts likelihood that a patient will fall based off six variables – history of falls, secondary diagnoses, ambulatory aids, intravenous therapy, gait and mental status; quick and easy to score.

Long-term care minimum dataset (LTCMDS) for all aspects of care in Nursing Home settings: captures falls and injury histories at regular intervals in the resident’s day.

Early predictions of outcomes

Primary sequelae of falls include injuries and post-fall anxiety. Multifactorial risk assessment and multifactorial intervention focused on identified deficits and risk factors are effective in reducing falls. However, few studies have shown benefits for fall prevention programs on quality of life.^2,5,14

Environmental

Indoor environmental hazards, including broken furniture or lamps, flooring issues, and other tripping hazards inside the home, may be an important indicator for an elevated risk of falls as older adults spend most of their time inside the home. Older women tend to fall more indoors, and older men fall more outdoors. Evaluation, identification and removal of environmental hazards in the home should be done by trained individuals and is recommended to help prevent falls, although study results are mixed.^6,13,18 The literature suggests that using slip-resistant flooring, adequate lightning, appropriate furniture, and an adequate and convenient layout^,21 may be the most helpful modifications.^1,19,20, The importance of a gender-specific environmental context of older adults has also been suggested and evidence regarding a differential effect of environmental factors on falls for women and men could potentially be used for gender-specific educational interventions to prevent falls.²¹

Social role and social support system

The living situation and social support of an older adult may significantly impact their fall risk. Supportive, attentive family, friends, neighbors and/or caregivers may assist in reducing falls.

However, this may result in significant caregiver burden if 24-hour supervision and/or assistance with ambulation, ADLs, shopping, housekeeping, and financial oversight are required. Telecommunication alarm devices can facilitate safety.

Professional issues

Multiple state legislatures have established protocols and programs to address falls by providing funding, setting up task forces, and enacting laws to protect seniors.

The CDC has developed the STEADI (Stopping Elderly Accidents, Deaths, and Injuries) initiative, which provides clinical tools and community resources to support fall risk screening and intervention. ²¹

Thirty states have established falls prevention coalitions to encourage collaboration and reduce falls, identify state or community needs, recommend policy changes, and build capacity. The following states are currently developing falls prevention coalitions: AK, AR, CO, CT, DC, HI, IL, IN, LA, MD, ME, MI, MT, VT, WV. The following states previously had coalitions that are now inactive: AL, ND, RI, SC, TN, WY²²

Rehabilitation Management and Treatments

Available or current treatment guidelines

The US Preventative Services Task Force recommends initiating an exercise program including strength, balance, gait and coordination training^4,9,22 Formal therapy may be needed for home exercise program to address transfer and function training, training with a gait aid, and provide home exercise program. Exercise programs reduce the rate of falls by 23% and may reduce the number of people experiencing one or more fall related fractures and/or requiring medical attention. Exercise programs that include multiple types of exercise including balance and functional exercises have the best outcomes.^2,5,21

Clinicians should individualize the decision to offer multifactorial intervention to address specific contributing risk factors or impairments customized to an individual patient’s multifactorial risk assessment. A sound general management strategy should be to fix things that are identified and fixable, help the person to compensate for, substitute for, or avoid non-fixable conditions or factors.²¹

Interventions include the following

• Medications: Eliminate, or reduce the dose of high-risk medications (e.g., antihypertensives, sedative hypnotics, anxiolytics, antidepressants, antipsychotics)^2,4,9
• Management of contributing neuromuscular and musculoskeletal problems
• Correct vision impairments. Advise patients to not wear multifocal lenses while walking^2,9
• Correct cardiovascular problems¹⁴
• Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation^2,4,9
• Address foot/footwear problems. Older persons should be advised to wear shoes with low heels and high surface contact area^4,9
• Home/environmental hazard evaluation and modification as needed.
• Patient/caregiver education/information regarding falls/falls prevention

At different disease stages

• New onset/acute: If risk factors for future falls are identified, schedule follow-up to re-evaluate patient, complete medication review. May need to initiate multi-factorial treatment intervention, if necessary.
• Subacute
  • Scheduled follow-up should be arranged as needed to re-evaluate the patient for compliance with the treatment interventions and to assess for recurrent falls. Medication review should be completed again.
  • Treatment of other complicating conditions (e.g., incontinence, depression, osteoporosis) may be initiated.
  • The older person needs to be reassessed for falls with any change in medical condition.
  • Home safety evaluation can be done by home health agencies and occupational therapists.
• Chronic/stable
  • Scheduled, or as needed, follow-up to re-evaluate for fall risk, repeat multifactorial risk assessment, and revise the multifactorial treatment intervention, if necessary.

Patient & family education

Detailed explanations in simple language (i.e., appropriate to patient’s/caregiver’s cognitive level) should be provided to the patient/caregiver regarding the older person’s risk assessment and the plan for fall prevention.

Written educational/informational materials with instructions for improved safety at home and in the community should be provided, as well as information about helplines for emergencies.¹³

Emerging/unique interventions

With electronic medical records, coordination of care and communication between physicians and caregivers can be improved and allow sharing of data among providers and hospital systems, allowing further research into epidemiology and efficacy of falls prevention interventions to be undertaken.

Also, adverse drug interactions can be avoided through automatic messages to ordering physicians. Social marketing campaigns regarding fall prevention might be delivered to the at-risk population through mail or the internet to change practices and attitudes.

Translation into practice: practice “pearls”/performance improvement in practice (PIPs)/changes in clinical practice behaviors and skills

All older persons should be asked at least once per year if they have fallen, and/or queried with the above noted falls screening questions. Medicare reimburses fall risk assessment and prevention as part of the Annual Wellness Visit, which incentivizes clinicians to screen for falls and implement preventive strategies.⁹

Depending upon the patient responses, there are several clinical algorithms that can be instituted including from The American Geriatrics Society (AGS)/British Geriatrics Society (BGS).^9,13

Individually prescribed and group exercises that include balance, gait training can reduce risk of.

Multifactorial interventions integrating assessment with individualized intervention, usually involving a multidisciplinary team, are effective in reducing rate of falls but not risk of falling.

Home safety interventions reduce rate of falls and risk of falling.

Implementation of a falls screening program could be challenging and would be suitable for a PIP project. Similarly, compliance with the multifactorial intervention program (e.g., gait/balance exercise program, medication modifications, home modifications) may be problematic, and coordination with the patient’s primary care provider may be difficult; these issues may be potential PIP projects as well.

Cutting Edge/Emerging and Unique Concepts and Practice

Emerging technology has the potential to assist patients and clinicians in understanding more about the occurrence and mechanisms involved in falls, enhancing intervention efforts, and identifying and monitoring falls. There is a growing body of literature describing the development and use of wearable sensors (accelerometers) and radar technology that can measure movement, detect falls, and monitor physiological and environmental parameters.^{23, 24} This can lead to better understanding of factors related to the fall, which can in turn lead to prevention. Other technology applications, such as the use of exercise gaming devices (Microsoft Kinnect,^® Nintendo Wii Fit^®) or the use of virtual reality devices have found that there was no significant difference between conventional exercises and exercise games, though may improve compliance with exercises thus successfully enhancing balance training in persons who fall or who are at risk for falling.²⁵ In the future, existing computerized gait analysis and recognition systems will combine with embedded or wearable sensors in “smart homes” to detect near-falls or falls and will trigger appropriate responses or alarms.²⁴

Gaps in the Evidence-Based Knowledge

Commonly used Fall Risk Assessment Tools (FRAT) have varying validity and reliability. Poor standardization of data collection and analysis has made interpretation challenging and thus it is difficult to determine trends. Public health initiatives to reduce falls are necessary to translate the positive evidence that exists towards developing more effective fall prevention strategies.

Research targeting health professionals is needed to increase clinician awareness and for implementation of clinical practice guidelines and effective interventions to decrease falls. Improved communication and collaboration are needed between referring clinicians and community service providers, who can develop and deploy ongoing community-based fall-prevention activity programs.²⁶ More studies exploring methods for increasing acceptance and adherence to effective falls prevention programs by older people and measurement of outcomes are also needed.

The impact of management programs for risk factors, such as cognitive impairment and urinary incontinence needs additional investigation.

Economic evaluations should be conducted alongside randomized controlled trials to establish the cost-effectiveness of each intervention being tested. Measuring health related quality of life as an outcome, defining the perspective and timeframe for costs, collecting data on healthcare use, costing healthcare resources, calculating cost-effectiveness ratios (if the intervention is effective in reducing falls), and evaluating uncertainty is needed.

References

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5. Colón-Emeric CS, McDermott CL, Lee DS, Berry SD. Risk Assessment and Prevention of Falls in Older Community-Dwelling Adults: A Review. JAMA. 2024;331(16):1397–1406. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.1416
6. Galet C, Zhou Y, Ten Eyck P, Romanowski KS. Fall injuries, associated deaths, and 30-day readmission for subsequent falls are increasing in the elderly US population: a query of the WHO mortality database and National Readmission Database from 2010 to 2014. Clin Epidemiol [Internet]. 2018;10:1627–37. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/clep.s181138
7. Kakara RS, Lee R, Eckstrom EN. Cause-Specific Mortality Among Adults Aged ≥65 Years in the United States, 1999 Through 2020. Public Health Rep. 2024 Jan-Feb;139(1):54-58. doi: 10.1177/00333549231155869. Epub 2023 Mar 11. PMID: 36905313; PMCID: PMC10905760.
8. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Facts About Falls. 9 May 2024, https://www.cdc.gov/falls/data-research/facts-stats/?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/falls/facts.html
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13. Panel on Prevention of Falls in Older Persons, American Geriatrics Society and British Geriatrics Society. Summary of the Updated American Geriatrics Society/British Geriatrics Society clinical practice guideline for prevention of falls in older persons: AGS/BGS clinical practice guideline for prevention of falls. J Am Geriatr Soc [Internet]. 2011;59(1):148–57. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03234.x
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22. National Council on Aging. State Falls Prevention Coalitions. National Council on Aging, www.ncoa.org/page/state-falls-prevention-coalitions/. Accessed 5 Sept. 2025.
23. Li Y, Liu P, Fang Y, Wu X, Xie Y, Xu Z, Ren H, Jing F. A Decade of Progress in Wearable Sensors for Fall Detection (2015–2024): A Network-Based Visualization Review. Sensors. 2025; 25(7):2205. https://doi.org/10.3390/s25072205
24. Donath L, Rössler R, Faude O. Effects of virtual reality training (exergaming) compared to alternative exercise training and passive control on standing balance and functional mobility in healthy community-dwelling seniors: A meta-analytical review. Sports Med [Internet]. 2016;46(9):1293–309. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0485-1
25. Chen X, Wu L, Feng H, Ning H, Wu S, Hu M, Jiang D, Chen Y, Jiang Y, Liu X. Comparison of Exergames Versus Conventional Exercises on the Health Benefits of Older Adults: Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. JMIR Serious Games 2023;11:e42374
26. Li F, Eckstrom E, Harmer P, Fitzgerald K, Voit J, Cameron KA. Exercise and fall prevention: Narrowing the research‐to‐practice gap and enhancing integration of clinical and community practice. J Am Geriatr Soc [Internet]. 2016;64(2):425–31. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jgs.13925

Original Version of the Topic

J. George Thomas, MD. Fall Prevention in the Elderly. 11/14/2011.

Previous Revision(s) of the Topic

Kevin M Means, MD, Lindsay E Mohney, DO. Fall Prevention in the Elderly. 7/18/2017.

Kevin M Means, MD; Lindsay E Mohney, DO. Fall Prevention in the Elderly. 1/18/2023.

Author Disclosure

Lindsay Mohney, DO
AAPM&R, honorarium, STEP Internventional Spasticity Course Faculty

Kristen Robak, MD
Nothing to Disclose

Jason Kim, MD
Nothing to Disclose